Constantinopolis Read online

  “Constantinople has fallen.”

  Nicholas studied the ambassador’s face, hoping the man was simply joking back with him. He saw immediately he was not. Nicholas forgot his mood and his walk. “What do you mean? How do you know?”

  “We received word by ship just a few days ago. The Doge immediately ordered that word be sent to you. Apparently Galata has also fallen. We have lost all access to the Black Sea. We have lost our trade routes to the East. We have lost our first defense against the Ottomans. Only God knows how long before they threaten Italy itself.”

  “Surely they will move against the Hungarians first? We must aid them. I shall call a crusade immediately.”

  “Of course Your Holiness is wise in all things. I might suggest that would be the worst thing you could do. We are divided and weak. We are only strong at sea. If we publicly attack the Ottomans before we are organized they may move immediately against us. We could hardly stop them. It is best to let them swallow up the remaining Greek territories and then take on the Hungarians. We can keep them away from Italy by sea, and hopefully Hunyadi will stop them on land. I do not think we are prepared to fight them now.”

  The Pope responded, “Of course by doing this are you still in a position to trade with the Ottomans, and you are not required to unite with your fellow Italian cities. I know your games. You will do with the Hungarians what you did with the Greeks. You will give them half promises while behind their backs you will deal with the Turks and continue your wars with your sister cities. I grow tired of these games. I will consider what you advise. It may be the best course of action but I want you to remember you may wake up one morning and find the Ottomans at your front door. What will you do then? Who will come to your aid when you have refused to come to theirs? God protect us all.”

  Nicholas concluded the audience and then returned to his private chambers. He was scarcely able to walk. The great Christian city had fallen. In the ancient world five great Christian Cities had existed: Jerusalem, Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople and Rome. Now only the last survived, a crumbling ruin of 50,000 inhabitants where millions used to dwell. Rome was in many ways the mirror of Constantinople. A faded memory of greatness long since past. Would he find the Turks at Rome’s walls one day? Tens of thousands of Ottoman warriors. What would he use to defend himself? A few hundred guards? Would the Venetians and Genoans even come to his aid?

  Had God abandoned them? Constantine had done the right thing. He had embraced the true church. Nicholas had sent reinforcements and secured the assistance of Hunyadi. Most importantly, he had sent his special Papal prayers to heaven. Did God not listen to his prayers? Did this Islamic Allah somehow have power over the Christian God? The Muslims claimed that God was one and the same. Preposterous heresy! Yet why did God not strike them down at the walls of Constantinople? Perhaps the Greeks needed their own Babylonian Captivity. Certainly they had lived immoral, calculating lives and had broken from the true faith. Yet was he not living among a den of thieves? These Venetians and Genoans and all the others could not be trusted for a moment. Any of them would destroy each other with hardly a thought, even in assistance of the terrible Sultan if it profited them enough. Perhaps God was punishing them all?

  All he could do was pray and work hard. He must make his best decisions and hope it would be enough. He thought of the great cathedral of St. Sophia, surely now a defiled mosque. He thought of Constantine, faded away like his empire and his city.

  Nicholas canceled his evening appearance. He extinguished the few candles in his room and fell to his knees on the hard stones. He spent the night awake in prayers for the Greeks and for his own people. May God protect them from the terror of the Turks.

  EPILOGUE

  The fall of Constantinople on Tuesday, May 29, 1453 sent shockwaves throughout both the Christian and Islamic worlds. For the Christians, the fall of the city brought home the threat of an Ottoman domination of Europe. For the Islamic world, a long delayed dream, one of the dreams of the Prophet himself was finally achieved. For both individuals and entire nations, the world would never be the same.

  THE GREEKS AND ITALIANS

  Constantinople

  Constantinople flourished tremendously after its fall. The city had never really recovered from the Latin conquest in 1204. When the Greeks had recovered the city in 1261 they had discovered a shell of a city, badly damaged and looted of most of its treasures and wealth.

  After Mehmet captured the city in 1453, he immediately began enormous efforts to revitalize the city. He imported thousands of Greeks and Turks from other parts of his empire to move into Constantinople both for population purposes and also as artisans and skilled workers. Mehmet began a series of immediate public works in the city including building mosques and a palace. The city grew in population and importance, and served once again as the center of a great empire.

  Although the majority of the Greek population of the city was initially enslaved, Istanbul became a multicultural city with a tolerance of different races and religions. A number of Orthodox churches were left in place and Mehmet allowed a Greek Monk named Gennadius, who had been a popular and outspoken critic of the Union, to serve as the Patriarch of Constantinople and thus the Patriarch of the Orthodox church.

  Istanbul today remains the largest city in Turkey with a population of 14 million. The original confines of the city have been overgrown to include areas well beyond the original walls, the Galata peninsula and beyond, as well as large areas on the Asian side. The St. Sophia, which became a mosque and is now a museum, remains one of the distinct landmarks in one of the most striking cityscapes in the world.

  The Greek People of Constantinople

  The Greek people of Constantinople numbered less than 100,000 at the time of the siege. The city had at one time contained more than 500,000, but had declined substantially over the years, particularly after the Latin capture of Constantinople in 1204.

  Historians estimate approximately 4,000 Greeks were killed on May 29, 1453. The rest of the residents were for the most part placed in slavery. The wealthier and noble residents were often able to purchase their freedom through ransom either directly or through intermediaries. They were then able to travel to Italy, Hungary, or one of the remaining Greek territories.

  The poorer classes were unable to purchase their freedom and were largely left to the whim of their new Turkish masters. They were spread throughout the Ottoman and indeed the Muslim world as a whole. Some of the residents were allowed to stay, and others may have been brought back to the city, particularly artisans and craftspeople. There can be no doubt that the citizens suffered terribly. Family members were killed or torn apart to be sold, never to see each other again. The lives of the vast majority of the citizens of Constantinople were forever and dramatically changed by the fall of the city.

  Impact on the Renaissance.

  Many historians since the fall of Constantinople have attributed the loss of the city to have spurred the beginning of the Italian Renaissance, or at least served as a significant contributing factor. The line of reasoning is that Greek scholars, carrying precious manuscripts of the writings of Aristotle, Plato, and others, fled to Italy after the fall of the city, thereby bringing a re-awaking of the ancient world to the Italian people, along with other sophisticated Greek reasoning from the Byzantine Empire.

  More recently, this analysis has changed. The Renaissance had already begun well before the fall of Constantinople. Additionally, because of the poor conditions and limited means available to the Byzantine empire, Greek scholars had been fleeing to Italy for years before the fall of the city itself.

  However, the fall of the city certainly brought a wealth of escaping Greeks and substantial documentation to Italy. Certainly it can be said that the fall of Constantinople, and the decay of the empire beforehand, enhanced the Italian Renaissance, rather than creating it.

  The Greek (Roman) Empire

  The Greek Empire, the last continuation of the Roman Emp
ire, did not survive long after the fall of Constantinople. Although Constantine’s brothers were still alive, there was no effort to crown another Emperor. The Moria, which was held by his brothers and consisted of the Greek Peloponnesus, held out until 1460. Trebizond, an independent spin off Kingdom on the shores of the Black Sea fell in 1461. A few islands that were Greek would be controlled by Italians or other non-Ottomans at various times, but for the most part the Greek people would be dominated by the Ottoman Empire for hundreds of years.

  The Greeks waged a war of independence from 1821 to 1832, with assistance from Russia, the United Kingdom and France. The nation ultimately gained its freedom although huge areas of “Greater Greece” including Thrace and the Anatolian Peninsula have remained Turkish. An effort after World War I to regain portions of this greater Greece met with disastrous results when the Turks rebelled in their own war of independence. Despite a desire on the part of some Greeks to regain Constantinople, the city has remained and will likely remain part of Turkey.

  Giovanni Longo Di Giustiniani

  Giovanni contributed immeasurably to the defense of Constantinople, but may have also contributed to the fall of the city. When he was wounded and carried off the battlefield in the morning of May 29, sources indicate his retreat led to a trickle and then a flood of retreat from the main point of battle. It is intriguing to speculate what might have happened if the Italian had not been wounded at this critical moment in the battle, or if he had stayed at his post. Certainly the Turks were tired and reportedly on the verge of lifting the siege. Perhaps they would have done so if this assault was unsuccessful. Of course the ultimate fate of the city was likely sealed. The Ottomans controlled all of the territory for hundreds of miles surrounding the city. The chances that a grand crusade would have formed and driven the Turks from Europe is exceptionally remote, particularly given the substantial infighting and divided form of Europe at that time. More likely, the city would have been saved for another few years.

  Giovanni escaped the city along with some of his men on an Italian vessel that successfully fled Constantinople in the chaotic aftermath of the fall of the city. Giovanni, heartbroken and severely wounded, died in June 1453 and was buried at Chios.

  Loukas Notaras

  Megadux or Grand Duke Loukas Notaras met a tragic end soon after the city fell. He was captured along with his family and initially he was released and promised a role in Mehmet’s new city. However, the taciturn and unpredictable Sultan soon changed his mind.

  According to historical reports, Mehmet under the influence of alcohol at a banquet, decided to call for Notaras’s son to spend the night with. Notaras objected. Mehmet then sent his guards to the Grand Duke’s house and all of the sons were executed. The guards returned with the heads and then executed Notaras himself. It is likely that Mehmet had determined it was too dangerous to retain such a high ranking Greek noble for fear of potential revolution.

  George Sphrantzes

  George Sphrantzes, friend of Constantine, managed to escape from Constantinople after the fall of the city and made his way to the Peloponnesus where Thomas, Constantine’s brother ruled. Eventually Sphrantzes entered a monastery.

  In his later years Sphrantzes wrote one of the most detailed histories of the fall of Constantinople. Historians for centuries have relied heavily on Sphrantze’s work. More recently, it was discovered that some of the history may have been a forgery written a century later by an unreliable monk, and much of Sphrantzes’ work has come in to question.

  Sphrantzes is portrayed in this novel as a traitor to the Greeks and an opportunist. There is no historical evidence he was involved in secret negotiations with Mehmet or Halil, although there is historical evidence that Halil was receiving bribes from the Greeks.

  Zophia

  Zophia is the only fictional character in Constantinopolis. She is representative of the Greek people themselves, and suffered the fate of the city.

  Zophia, like the Greek people, was unwilling to accept the Union of the Churches. She was disappointed with Constantine for forcing the Union, but like the people, she understood why he had to do so.

  Mehmet’s treatment of Zophia is symbolic of his historically documented unpredictability. He provided safety and generosity to some Greeks while at the same time he was able to inflict a cruel ending, as he did with Loukas Notaras.

  Pope Nicholas V

  Pope Nicholas V was shocked when word reached him in July 1453 that Constantinople had fallen. He immediately preached a crusade against the Ottomans and made efforts to rally the west. Although the fall of Constantinople stunned western leaders, they were too wrapped up in their own rivalries and internal struggles to take any concerted action. Nicholas died in 1455 after only eight years as Pope.

  John Hunyadi

  After the fall of Constantinople it became apparent that Belgrade would soon be a target of the Ottomans. Belgrade was a fortress and a gateway to invasion of Hungary. The Ottomans attacked in 1456 and Hunyadi again defeated the Turks, forcing Mehmet to retreat to Constantinople. However he caught an illness and died in August, 1456.

  Hunyadi was the greatest Christian military leader of the time, and as the result of his victories the Hungarians were not threatened again by the Ottomans for another 70 years.

  Cardinal Isidore

  Cardinal Isidore survived the siege of Constantinople by dressing a dead body in his clothing. He was captured by the Turks but not recognized and was freed either by purchasing his freedom or by escaping.

  He made his way back to Rome and was made the Bishop of Sabina. He subsequently returned to Moscow and was arrested again for attempting to force the Latin rite on the Orthodox Christian Russians.

  THE OTTOMANS

  The Ottoman Empire

  The Ottoman Empire with Constantinople as its new capitol continued to expand under Mehmet and a series of capable Sultans. The Ottomans straddled the Eastern and Western world, and was arguably the most sophisticated and successful empire of the late middle ages/early modern age.

  The Ottomans conquered huge territories in North Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and in Europe expanded into the Balkans as far as Hungary. Ottoman armies laid siege to Vienna in 1529 and 1683.

  The Ottomans were long one of the most powerful empires in the world and afforded the people under their rule relative peace and tranquility compared to other parts of the world, particularly Europe, which experienced dramatic war and conflict during the same period.

  The Ottoman Empire began a slow decline beginning in the late Seventeenth Century. Other European empires such as Russian and Austria-Hungary rose to challenge the Ottomans. European technology and organization slowly caught up with and then passed the impressive Ottoman administrative system. Gradually territories fell to these other empires in a series of wars and local revolutions. By the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire was known as the “Sick Man of Europe,” and was propped up often by the French and English, who feared the rise of Russian maritime power.

  The Ottoman Empire allied itself with Germany during World War I. The Turks were by this time badly outmatched and suffered eventual defeat to the allies and a successful Arab revolt. After the war the nation was divided but rose in revolution under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. The modern secular nation of Turkey was formed, which included Constantinople (now Istanbul), a small part of Europe and the Anatolian Peninsula. Turkey is largely Islamic but has remained a secular nation to this day, and is a significant power that bridges the European and Middle-Eastern world.

  Zaganos Pasha

  After the siege of Constantinople Zaganos Pasha was named Mehmet’s Grand Vizier, replacing Halil. After the siege Zaganos immediately set out with galleys and surrounded Galata, to halt any additional escape of Greeks and Italians.

  Zaganos fell from favor after a failed attempt to capture Belgrade but returned to power in 1459 becoming the governor of Thessaly and Macedonia.

  Grand Vizier Halil

 
Grand Vizier Halil was executed by hanging in Edirne in August or September, 1453. He stood accused of receiving bribes from the Greeks and giving them secrets. There is not definitive evidence of whether these allegations were true, or whether this was a charge trumped up by Mehmet as the primary or at least one of the reasons to execute the Vizier.

  Halil did represent the old guard of Ottoman advisors that had largely served Mehmet’s father and were open conflict with Mehmet’s new younger advisors, who were primarily Christian converts. Halil had summoned Murad back out of retirement when Mehmet first took the throne. Mehmet certainly must have had a complex relationship with Halil, depending on him but also fearing and distrusting him.

  Mehmet II

  After the capture of Constantinople Mehmet immediately focused on rebuilding Constantinople and turning it into a magnificent capitol for the Ottoman Empire. Mehmet was tolerant of the religious and ethnic differences in his empire, much more so than the contemporary Christian kingdoms at the time.

  Over the next few years he conquered the remaining portions of the Greek empire, taking on the mantle of the Roman Empire and forging a new and dominant world empire that blended the west with the east.

  He made further gains in Anatolia and also conquered nearly all of Serbia. He was stopped in 1456 at the city of Belgrade by Hungarian forces led by John Hunyadi.

  Mehmet had a reputation for brutality, but he also could be generous and forgiving. He was a tremendous patron of the arts, and was well cultured. His brutality is likely traceable to the traumatic events he suffered as a child, when he was forced to take on so much responsibility at such an early age, and then subsequently humiliated with the removal of that power. The Sultan was certainly not unusually cruel for leaders of the time, nor for that matter were the Turks in general. The sack of Constantinople was certainly a devastating event, but no more so than the Christian Crusaders who captured Jerusalem from the Muslims in 1099. Any city that failed to surrender to a besieging army in the middle ages would likely face brutal treatment if the city was ultimately taken.